This research project investigates whether, and to what extent, within a legal discipline traditionally grounded in economic criteria such as competition law, the protection of personal data and privacy can and should be integrated in light of the structural transformations brought about by the platform economy. Starting from the premise that digital markets fundamentally rely on the large-scale collection, processing and monetisation of users’ personal data, the thesis argues that the traditional “siloed” approach separating antitrust enforcement from data protection is no longer sustainable: a rigid division between GDPR enforcement and competition analysis generates gaps in protection and prevents regulators from capturing the new forms of private economic power exercised by dominant digital platforms. The research accordingly advances a joint and integrated approach, preserving the autonomy of each legal regime while situating them within a coherent framework aligned with the constitutional values of the European Union and the economic reality of data-driven markets. The thesis demonstrates, on the one hand, the inadequacy of the GDPR to reestablish an equitable relationship between users and dominant platforms, due to information asymmetries, power imbalances, structural enforcement limitations, and the absence of behavioural or structural remedies; on the other hand, it highlights how the “more economic approach” and the narrow reading of consumer welfare have historically excluded fundamental rights considerations from the scope of EU competition law. Building on the turning point marked by the Meta Platforms judgment (C-252/21), originally triggered by the Facebook/Bundeskartellamt case, the thesis argues for the full relevance, under Article 102 TFEU, of violations of privacy and personal-data protection rules, where such violations constitute an expression of market power and materially distort market structure and competitive dynamics. Non-compliance with the GDPR is conceptualised as a “vital clue” of abuse of dominance, while access to personal data is understood as a genuine parameter of competition in digital markets. The thesis carefully develops the mechanisms through which personal data and privacy can be embedded within competition parameters, revisiting price, quality and choice in an evolutionary manner. In zero-price markets, service quality is reinterpreted as encompassing lawful data-processing practices and respect for privacy – essential components of the digital offering. A significant degradation of quality is, first and foremost, anchored to the breach of the GDPR’s minimum guarantees. In parallel, the research deepens the concept of consumer choice by distinguishing between an “external” dimension (choice among alternative services) and an “internal” dimension (choice regarding data-processing conditions and privacy policies). In digital markets, the absence of both effective competitors and alternative business models with different privacy standards deprives users of real sovereignty, generating a form of competitive homogenisation on privacy. This analysis is complemented by the proposal to update market-definition tools through a SSNDP test (Small but Significant Non-Transitory Decrease in Privacy), designed to measure the competitive effects of a meaningful, non-transitory reduction in dataprotection levels. The thesis also revisits exploitative abuses under Article 102 TFEU, reclaiming their protective function in digital markets. First, the excessive collection of personal data is conceptualised as a form of “excessive pricing” in non-monetary transactions: using the GDPR and the EU framework on digital content and services as normative benchmarks, disproportionate extraction of non-essential data is framed as informational exploitation. Second, the thesis develops theories of harm grounded in unfair trading conditions applied to privacy policies and terms of service: non-necessary or disproportionate clauses, opacity, retroactive unilateral changes, sharing of data with third parties for new purposes (e.g., AI training), and the use of dark patterns are identified as potentially abusive practices that restrict user autonomy, aggravate informational asymmetries and reinforce market power. On this basis, the thesis proposes an expanded notion of consumer welfare, arguing that a purely economic conception, focused on surplus maximisation and price effects, is structurally inadequate in digital markets, where services are offered at zero monetary cost and the “counter-performance” consists of personal data. The digital consumer is simultaneously a service user and a data subject under the GDPR, holder of the fundamental rights to privacy and data protection: the welfare protected by competition law cannot disregard the effective respect for such rights. Violations of rules on freely given and informed consent, purpose limitation and data minimisation, when attributable to a dominant firm, amount to a form of consumer harm and may constitute abuse, particularly when they lead to choice manipulation, erosion of decision-making autonomy and compression of consumer sovereignty. Privacy protection is therefore recognised as an integral component of consumer welfare, with concrete implications for enforcement priorities and theories of harm. Finally, the thesis reconstructs the legal and systemic foundations of a “constitutionally oriented” competition law, anchored in the EU’s axiological framework and fundamental rights. Drawing on the notion of a “highly competitive social market economy” (Art. 3 TEU), the horizontal coherence requirement of Art. 7 TFEU and the binding force of the Charter of Fundamental Rights (Arts. 7 and 8), the research argues that competition policy cannot be applied in isolation but must operate consistently with the Union’s other objectives and values, including data protection. In this light, EU antitrust law is interpreted in continuity with the ordoliberal tradition, as a safeguard against concentrations of private economic power that threaten not only allocative efficiency but also individual freedoms. Recent practice—from Microsoft/LinkedIn and Facebook/Bundeskartellamt to Meta Platforms (C-252/21), as well as the Digital Markets Act and emerging cooperation mechanisms between competition and data-protection authorities— confirms the emergence of a new trajectory: a competition law that systematically integrates privacy and personal-data protection into its analytical framework and objectives, ensuring that digital markets remain genuinely contestable and respectful of the dignity and informational self-determination of consumers.
tradizionalmente fondata su criteri economici quale il diritto della concorrenza, possa e debba trovare spazio la tutela dei dati personali e della vita privata, alla luce delle trasformazioni introdotte dall’economia delle piattaforme digitali. Muovendo dalla constatazione che i mercati digitali sono strutturalmente fondati sulla raccolta, elaborazione e monetizzazione dei dati personali degli utenti, la ricerca sostiene che la tradizionale impostazione “a compartimenti stagni” tra antitrust e protezione dei dati sia insostenibile: la separazione rigida tra enforcement del GDPR e analisi concorrenziale produce vuoti di tutela e non consente di cogliere le nuove forme di potere economico privato esercitate dalle grandi piattaforme. La ricerca propone dunque un approccio congiunto e integrato, volto a mantenere distinti i piani normativi ma a ricondurli entro un quadro unitario, coerente con i valori costituzionali dell’Unione e con la realtà economica dei mercati digitali. Sul piano ricostruttivo, la tesi mostra, da un lato, l’insufficienza del solo GDPR a riequilibrare i rapporti tra utenti e piattaforme dominanti, a causa di asimmetrie informative, squilibri di potere, limiti strutturali dell’enforcement e assenza di rimedi strutturali o comportamentali; dall’altro, mette in luce come il “more economic approach” e la lettura ristretta del consumer welfare abbiano storicamente escluso dal perimetro antitrust la lesione dei diritti fondamentali, confinandola all’ambito della protezione dei dati. A partire dalla svolta rappresentata dalla sentenza Meta Platforms (C-252/21), originata dal caso Facebook/Bundeskartellamt, la tesi teorizza invece la piena rilevanza, ai fini dell’art. 102 TFUE, della violazione delle norme in materia di privacy e protezione dei dati personali, quando essa sia espressione e manifestazione del potere di mercato e incida sulla struttura e sul funzionamento concorrenziale del mercato. La non conformità al GDPR è così concettualizzata come “vital clue” di abuso di posizione dominante, e l’accesso ai dati personali viene assunto come vero e proprio parametro competitivo nei mercati digitali. Il lavoro elabora in modo puntuale le modalità attraverso cui dati personali e privacy possono essere inclusi nei parametri di concorrenza, rielaborando in chiave evolutiva le categorie di qualità e scelta. Nei mercati a prezzo zero, la qualità del servizio è reinterpretata includendovi il corretto trattamento dei dati personali e il rispetto della privacy, intesi come componenti essenziali dell’offerta digitale; la riduzione rilevante della qualità è ancorata, in primo luogo, alla violazione delle garanzie previste dal GDPR. In parallelo, la tesi approfondisce il concetto di consumer choice, distinguendo fra una dimensione “esterna” (scelta tra servizi alternativi) e una dimensione “interna” (scelta rispetto alle condizioni di trattamento dei dati e alle privacy policy): nei mercati digitali, l’assenza sia di concorrenti effettivi sia di modelli di servizio alternativi per standard di tutela dei dati priva il consumatore di una reale sovranità, generando una forma di omologazione concorrenziale sulla privacy. Tale analisi è integrata dalla proposta di aggiornamento degli strumenti tradizionali di definizione del mercato rilevante, attraverso l’introduzione di un test SSNDP (Small but Significant Non-Transitory Decrease in Privacy), volto a misurare gli effetti concorrenziali di una degradazione significativa e non transitoria dei livelli di protezione dei dati. La tesi rielabora inoltre la categoria dell’abuso di posizione dominante da sfruttamento ex art. 102 TFUE, riscoprendone la valenza protettiva nei confronti dei consumatori. In primo luogo, l’eccessiva raccolta di dati personali viene concettualizzata come forma di “prezzo eccessivo” in mercati a corrispettivo non monetario: assumendo come benchmark normativo il GDPR e la disciplina sui contenuti e servizi digitali, l’estrazione sproporzionata di dati eccedenti il necessario è qualificata come sfruttamento informativo. In secondo luogo, sono elaborate teorie del danno basate sulle condizioni di transazione non eque, applicate alle privacy policy e ai termini d’uso delle piattaforme dominanti: condizioni non necessarie o sproporzionate, mancanza di trasparenza, modifiche unilaterali retroattive, condivisione dei dati con terzi per nuove finalità (ad esempio per l’addestramento di sistemi di IA) e uso di dark pattern sono ricondotte a pratiche potenzialmente abusive, in quanto restringono la libertà di scelta degli utenti, aggravano le asimmetrie informative e consolidano il potere di mercato. Su tale base, la tesi propone un ampliamento del concetto di consumer welfare, ritenendo strutturalmente inadeguato suo il sostrato esclusivamente economico, fondato sulla massimizzazione del surplus e sulla centralità del prezzo, se applicato nei mercati digitali in cui i servizi sono offerti gratuitamente e la “controprestazione” è rappresentata dai dati personali. Il consumatore digitale è al tempo stesso utente e interessato ai sensi del GDPR, titolare dei diritti fondamentali alla vita privata e alla protezione dei dati: il welfare che il diritto della concorrenza è chiamato a tutelare non può prescindere dal rispetto effettivo di tali diritti. La violazione delle regole sul consenso libero e informato, sulla limitazione delle finalità e sulla minimizzazione del trattamento, ove imputabile a un’impresa dominante, integra dunque una forma di danno ai consumatori e può costituire abuso di posizione dominante, specie quando si traduce in manipolazione delle scelte, erosione dell’autonomia decisionale e compressione della sovranità del consumatore. In questa prospettiva, la tutela della privacy è ricondotta a pieno titolo all’interno del consumer welfare, quale componente essenziale della qualità del servizio e della libertà di scelta, con ricadute concrete sulle priorità di enforcement e sulle teorie del danno applicabili. Infine, la tesi ricostruisce il fondamento giuridico e sistematico di un diritto della concorrenza “costituzionalmente orientato”, ancorato al quadro assiologico e ai diritti fondamentali dell’Unione. Richiamando la nozione di “economia sociale di mercato fortemente competitiva” dell’art. 3 TUE, il vincolo di coerenza orizzontale dell’art. 7 TFUE e la forza normativa della Carta dei diritti fondamentali (artt. 7 e 8), il lavoro sostiene che la politica di concorrenza non possa essere applicata in modo isolato, ma debba operare in armonia con gli altri obiettivi e valori dell’Unione, inclusa la protezione dei dati personali. In questa chiave, il diritto antitrust europeo viene letto in continuità con la tradizione ordoliberale, come presidio contro le concentrazioni di potere economico privato che minacciano non soltanto l’efficienza allocativa, ma anche le libertà individuali. La prassi recente – dai casi Microsoft/LinkedIn, Facebook/Bundeskartellamt e Meta Platforms, alla disciplina dei gatekeeper nel Digital Markets Act e ai meccanismi di cooperazione tra autorità antitrust e autorità privacy – è interpretata come conferma di una nuova traiettoria evolutiva: un diritto della concorrenza che integra stabilmente la tutela della privacy e dei dati personali nei propri parametri analitici e nei propri obiettivi, al fine di garantire mercati digitali realmente contendibili, rispettosi della dignità e dell’autodeterminazione informativa dei consumatori.
DIRITTO DELLA CONCORRENZA E PROTEZIONE DEI DATI PERSONALI NEI MERCATI DIGITALI / Lupacchini, B.. - (2026 Apr 17).
DIRITTO DELLA CONCORRENZA E PROTEZIONE DEI DATI PERSONALI NEI MERCATI DIGITALI
Lupacchini, B.
2026-04-17
Abstract
This research project investigates whether, and to what extent, within a legal discipline traditionally grounded in economic criteria such as competition law, the protection of personal data and privacy can and should be integrated in light of the structural transformations brought about by the platform economy. Starting from the premise that digital markets fundamentally rely on the large-scale collection, processing and monetisation of users’ personal data, the thesis argues that the traditional “siloed” approach separating antitrust enforcement from data protection is no longer sustainable: a rigid division between GDPR enforcement and competition analysis generates gaps in protection and prevents regulators from capturing the new forms of private economic power exercised by dominant digital platforms. The research accordingly advances a joint and integrated approach, preserving the autonomy of each legal regime while situating them within a coherent framework aligned with the constitutional values of the European Union and the economic reality of data-driven markets. The thesis demonstrates, on the one hand, the inadequacy of the GDPR to reestablish an equitable relationship between users and dominant platforms, due to information asymmetries, power imbalances, structural enforcement limitations, and the absence of behavioural or structural remedies; on the other hand, it highlights how the “more economic approach” and the narrow reading of consumer welfare have historically excluded fundamental rights considerations from the scope of EU competition law. Building on the turning point marked by the Meta Platforms judgment (C-252/21), originally triggered by the Facebook/Bundeskartellamt case, the thesis argues for the full relevance, under Article 102 TFEU, of violations of privacy and personal-data protection rules, where such violations constitute an expression of market power and materially distort market structure and competitive dynamics. Non-compliance with the GDPR is conceptualised as a “vital clue” of abuse of dominance, while access to personal data is understood as a genuine parameter of competition in digital markets. The thesis carefully develops the mechanisms through which personal data and privacy can be embedded within competition parameters, revisiting price, quality and choice in an evolutionary manner. In zero-price markets, service quality is reinterpreted as encompassing lawful data-processing practices and respect for privacy – essential components of the digital offering. A significant degradation of quality is, first and foremost, anchored to the breach of the GDPR’s minimum guarantees. In parallel, the research deepens the concept of consumer choice by distinguishing between an “external” dimension (choice among alternative services) and an “internal” dimension (choice regarding data-processing conditions and privacy policies). In digital markets, the absence of both effective competitors and alternative business models with different privacy standards deprives users of real sovereignty, generating a form of competitive homogenisation on privacy. This analysis is complemented by the proposal to update market-definition tools through a SSNDP test (Small but Significant Non-Transitory Decrease in Privacy), designed to measure the competitive effects of a meaningful, non-transitory reduction in dataprotection levels. The thesis also revisits exploitative abuses under Article 102 TFEU, reclaiming their protective function in digital markets. First, the excessive collection of personal data is conceptualised as a form of “excessive pricing” in non-monetary transactions: using the GDPR and the EU framework on digital content and services as normative benchmarks, disproportionate extraction of non-essential data is framed as informational exploitation. Second, the thesis develops theories of harm grounded in unfair trading conditions applied to privacy policies and terms of service: non-necessary or disproportionate clauses, opacity, retroactive unilateral changes, sharing of data with third parties for new purposes (e.g., AI training), and the use of dark patterns are identified as potentially abusive practices that restrict user autonomy, aggravate informational asymmetries and reinforce market power. On this basis, the thesis proposes an expanded notion of consumer welfare, arguing that a purely economic conception, focused on surplus maximisation and price effects, is structurally inadequate in digital markets, where services are offered at zero monetary cost and the “counter-performance” consists of personal data. The digital consumer is simultaneously a service user and a data subject under the GDPR, holder of the fundamental rights to privacy and data protection: the welfare protected by competition law cannot disregard the effective respect for such rights. Violations of rules on freely given and informed consent, purpose limitation and data minimisation, when attributable to a dominant firm, amount to a form of consumer harm and may constitute abuse, particularly when they lead to choice manipulation, erosion of decision-making autonomy and compression of consumer sovereignty. Privacy protection is therefore recognised as an integral component of consumer welfare, with concrete implications for enforcement priorities and theories of harm. Finally, the thesis reconstructs the legal and systemic foundations of a “constitutionally oriented” competition law, anchored in the EU’s axiological framework and fundamental rights. Drawing on the notion of a “highly competitive social market economy” (Art. 3 TEU), the horizontal coherence requirement of Art. 7 TFEU and the binding force of the Charter of Fundamental Rights (Arts. 7 and 8), the research argues that competition policy cannot be applied in isolation but must operate consistently with the Union’s other objectives and values, including data protection. In this light, EU antitrust law is interpreted in continuity with the ordoliberal tradition, as a safeguard against concentrations of private economic power that threaten not only allocative efficiency but also individual freedoms. Recent practice—from Microsoft/LinkedIn and Facebook/Bundeskartellamt to Meta Platforms (C-252/21), as well as the Digital Markets Act and emerging cooperation mechanisms between competition and data-protection authorities— confirms the emergence of a new trajectory: a competition law that systematically integrates privacy and personal-data protection into its analytical framework and objectives, ensuring that digital markets remain genuinely contestable and respectful of the dignity and informational self-determination of consumers.| File | Dimensione | Formato | |
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LUPACCHINI_Tesi.pdf
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Descrizione: DIRITTO DELLA CONCORRENZA E PROTEZIONE DEI DATI PERSONALI NEI MERCATI DIGITALI
Tipologia:
Tesi di dottorato
Licenza:
Creative commons
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4.96 MB
Formato
Adobe PDF
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