This doctoral dissertation integrates national accounting with general equilibrium in order to provide theoretical and empirical insights into addressing the current global challenges of food security, environmental protection, and competition in policy modeling and evaluation. The three chapters collectively demonstrate the properties and potential of Computable General Equilibrium (CGE) models calibrated on Social Accounting Matrices (SAMs) to bridge the disaggregated structure of the economic system, as evidenced in the database, with a rigorous scientific characterization of the behavior of the operators. The SAM is the most suitable accounting scheme for presenting in matrix form the intricate interconnectedness of economic systems in a comprehensive, relevant, and internally consistent manner. In essence, the SAM captures the picture of the complete circular flow of income. General equilibrium provides the theoretical basis for CGE models, which formalize the core relationships between the operators through a system of simultaneous nonlinear equations that describe the interactions among markets, the formation of prices, and the determination of disposable incomes by institutional sector. This is achieved by deriving the system’s reference behavioral and technological parameters and quotas from the SAM. The first chapter, entitled “The disaggregated effects of policies for food security: the Pakistani case”, emphasizes the significance of food access and security in the assessment of economic policies, illustrating this with an example from Pakistan. To examine changes in GDP, income distribution, and food access, three policy scenarios are analyzed using a CGE model calibrated on a SAM for Pakistan. The SAM is complemented with data on calorie consumption, adapted from the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) data set, and categorizes households into sixteen groups based on geographic location and source of income. The calorie intake matrix provides a comprehensive account of food consumption by food type and household group. The model offers insights into potential shifts in consumption and nutritional processes resulting from the implementation of distinct policies. Of these, the policy of transfers plays the most significant role in simultaneously improving access to food and the spending capacity of low-income households. This outcome would suggest a need for a redesign of redistributive policies using the most consumed food quotas relative to other food commodities as the allocation method, with the aim of achieving equalizing impacts on real disposable incomes and directing resources towards a more substantial and nutrient-rich calorie intake. Ultimately, the objective is to equip policymakers with supplementary tools to assess the impact of economic policies on food access and security, moving beyond the conventional scope of resource allocation. The second chapter, entitled “Tools and policy actions to reconcile economic targets and emission abatement”, presents a CGE model based on a SAM that integrates the cost of CO2 abatement technology into the production cost function. The objective of this modeling approach is to reduce carbon emissions from fossil fuel plants while maintaining a sustained economic performance. Specifically, to examine the transmission mechanisms of economic policy impacts and shocks from the economic system to the environment, an environmental SAM is constructed, wherein CO2 flows in physical terms by industry are valued at the average price observed in the Emission Trading System (ETS) market. The SAM also incorporates the abatement capital flows associated with the absorption of four fossil sources, namely coal, crude oil, gas, and coking, in production processes. Secondly, the CGE model calibrated on the environmental SAM formalizes the principal relationships between the actors of the system and endogenizes the cost of CO2 emissions from fossil energy sources (the carbon tax) and the cost of abatement technology for these emissions. This chapter focuses on China, which is responsible for approximately one-third of global CO2 emissions and is the world’s largest energy producer. However, this approach may represent a best practice that can be extended to the analysis of environmental policies in other countries. Indeed, the results highlight the importance of adopting a multisectoral approach for the design and assessment of sectoral environmental policy measures. This is exemplified by the promotion of CO2 abatement technology in the electricity industry, which can be conceived as a substitute for carbon taxation. An increase in demand for abatement technology gives rise to interdependencies in production, thereby mitigating the adverse effects of a combined carbon tax on the economic system. When the costs associated with the abatement technology and carbon emissions are accompanied by the recycling of the carbon tax revenue, the system demonstrates a certain ability to overcome the traditional trade-off between economic and environmental objectives. The third chapter, entitled “Degree of monopoly and price formation in a multisectoral CGE model”, draws upon the ongoing discourse surrounding competition in the National Recovery and Resilience Plan (NRRP). From the perspective of the impact analysis of these reforms, there is a need to reconcile the theoretical foundations of the partial equilibrium approach to imperfect competition with the multisectoral general equilibrium approach, which is capable of elucidating the aggregate and disaggregated response of the economic system to a departure from the hypothesis of perfect competition. Therefore, a theoretical and methodological advancement is proposed in a CGE model calibrated on a SAM for Italy. A mark-up on the price of goods and services is introduced to make the commodity market behaviors outlined by the model more consistent with the empirical evidence on imperfectly competitive markets. Three policy scenarios are considered: one representing perfect competition, one representing a low degree of monopoly, and another representing a high degree of monopoly. This allows for an evaluation of the CGE model’s ability to accurately capture price formation in commodity markets characterized by differentiated degrees of monopoly, the allocation of resources across institutional sectors, and offer a more detailed picture of the transmission channels of economic policy. The simulation exercises illustrate that there is a notable sectoral differentiation that is not univocal when considering a high degree of monopoly with respect to the assumption of perfect competition. This pronounced sectoral differentiation is influenced by a multitude of factors. These factors include the institutional framework in place, the extent to which previous international and national regulations have been integrated into the market under consideration, and the fact that each production sector is defined by distinct technologies and market characteristics.
Questo lavoro di tesi mira ad integrare la contabilità nazionale con l’equilibrio economico generale per fornire spunti teorici ed empirici rispetto alle attuali sfide globali della sicurezza alimentare, della protezione ambientale e della concorrenza nelle applicazioni ai modelli per la politica economica e per la valutazione dei loro impatti nei sistemi economici. Il lavoro si compone di tre capitoli che esplorano le proprietà e le potenzialità dei modelli di equilibrio economico generale computabile (Computable General Equilibrium, CGE) calibrati sulla Matrice di Contabilità Sociale (Social Accounting Matrix, SAM) quali strumenti di raccordo tra la struttura disaggregata del sistema economico e la caratterizzazione analitica del comportamento degli operatori. La SAM è lo schema contabile adatto a rappresentare in forma matriciale le complesse interrelazioni dei sistemi economici in maniera coerente e scientificamente consistente. Nello specifico, la SAM è la base dati in grado di far emergere l’intero flusso circolare del reddito. L’equilibrio economico generale fornisce le fondamenta teoriche per i modelli CGE, i quali formalizzano le principali relazioni tra gli operatori attraverso un sistema di equazioni simultanee che descrivono le interazioni tra i mercati, i meccanismi di formazione dei prezzi e la determinazione dei redditi disponibili dei settori istituzionali. I modelli CGE calibrati sulle SAM ricavano dalla base dati le quote e i parametri comportamentali e tecnologici di riferimento del sistema economico. Il primo capitolo, intitolato “The disaggregated effects of policies for food security: the Pakistani case”, sottolinea la rilevanza dell’accesso e della sicurezza alimentare nella valutazione d’impatto delle politiche fiscali e propone un caso studio per il Pakistan. Si costruisce una SAM per il Pakistan su cui si calibra un modello CGE per osservare le variazioni nel PIL, nella distribuzione del reddito, nell’accesso e nella sicurezza alimentare a seguito dell’implementazione di tre scenari di policy. La SAM è integrata con i dati sul consumo calorico delle famiglie pakistane adattati dalla Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) e distingue le famiglie in sedici gruppi rispetto al collocamento geografico e alla fonte di reddito. La matrice di introito calorico registra i dati sul consumo calorico per tipo di bene alimentare e per gruppo di famiglia. Il modello offre indicazioni sui potenziali cambiamenti nei consumi e nei processi nutrizionali derivanti dall’implementazione di politiche di varia natura. Tra queste, la politica dei trasferimenti svolge il ruolo più significativo nel migliorare l’accesso al cibo e sostenere la capacità di spesa delle famiglie a basso reddito. Questo risultato suggerisce di ridisegnare le politiche redistributive utilizzando come metodo di allocazione le quote alimentari al fine di ottenere un impatto perequativo sui redditi disponibili reali e di indirizzare le risorse verso un apporto calorico più sostanzioso e ricco di nutrienti. In definitiva, l’obiettivo è dotare i policymaker di strumenti supplementari per valutare l’impatto delle politiche economiche sull’accesso e la sicurezza alimentare, oltrepassando l’ambito convenzionale dell’allocazione delle risorse. Il secondo capitolo, dal titolo “Tools and policy actions to reconcile economic targets and emission abatement”, presenta un modello CGE calibrato su una SAM che integra il costo della tecnologia di abbattimento della CO2 nella funzione dei costi di produzione. L’obiettivo di questo approccio modellistico è ridurre le emissioni di carbonio garantendo al contempo una performance economica positiva. In primo luogo, si costruisce una SAM ambientale per esaminare i meccanismi di trasmissione degli impatti di politica economica e degli shock dal sistema economico all’ambiente. In questa SAM, i flussi fisici di CO2 per industria sono valorizzati al prezzo medio registrato nel mercato dell’Emission Trading System (ETS). Inoltre, la SAM incorpora i flussi di capitale di abbattimento associati all’assorbimento nei processi produttivi di quattro fonti fossili, quali carbone, petrolio greggio, gas e coking. In secondo luogo, si sviluppa il modello CGE calibrato sulla SAM ambientale che rende endogeni il costo delle emissioni di CO2 generate dalle fonti energetiche fossili (la carbon tax) e il costo della tecnologia di abbattimento di tali emissioni. Questo capitolo si concentra sulla Cina in quanto responsabile di circa un terzo delle emissioni globali di CO2 e maggiore produttore di energia. Tuttavia, questo approccio può rappresentare una best practice da estendere all’analisi delle politiche ambientali di altri paesi. Infatti, i risultati evidenziano la rilevanza di adottare un approccio multisettoriale per la formulazione e la valutazione di misure di politica ambientale settoriale. Questo aspetto emerge attraverso la promozione della tecnologia di abbattimento della CO2 nell’industria elettrica, considerata in alternativa alla carbon tax. L’aumento della domanda di tecnologie di abbattimento attenua gli effetti di disincentivo alla produzione della carbon tax nel sistema economico. Quando i costi associati alla tecnologia di abbattimento e alle emissioni di carbonio sono combinati con il riciclo del gettito da carbon tax, il sistema mostra un’attitudine a superare il tradizionale trade-off tra obiettivi economici e ambientali. Il terzo capitolo, intitolato “Degree of monopoly and price formation in a multisectoral CGE model”, trae spunto dal rinnovato dibattito sulla concorrenza nel Piano Nazionale di Ripresa e Resilienza (PNRR). Dal punto di vista dell’analisi d’impatto di queste riforme, è necessario riconciliare le fondamenta teoriche dell’approccio di equilibrio parziale di concorrenza imperfetta con l’approccio di equilibrio generale multisettoriale che è in grado di illustrare la risposta del sistema economico, in termini aggregati e disaggregati, derivante dall’allontanamento dall’ipotesi di concorrenza perfetta. Pertanto, si propone un avanzamento teorico e metodologico in un modello CGE calibrato su una SAM per l’Italia. Si introduce un mark-up sul prezzo di beni e servizi per rendere i comportamenti dei mercati dei beni delineati dal modello più coerenti con l’evidenza empirica sui mercati non perfettamente concorrenziali. Si considerano tre scenari di policy, di cui il primo in ipotesi di concorrenza perfetta, il secondo in ipotesi di basso grado di monopolio e il terzo in ipotesi di alto grado di monopolio. Questi scenari consentono di esplorare la capacità del modello CGE di cogliere con precisione la formazione dei prezzi nei mercati dei beni caratterizzati da gradi differenziati di monopolio, l’allocazione delle risorse tra i settori istituzionali e di offrire un quadro più dettagliato dei canali di trasmissione della politica economica. Gli esercizi di simulazione mostrano che esiste una notevole differenziazione settoriale quando si considera un alto grado di monopolio rispetto all’ipotesi di concorrenza perfetta. Questa marcata differenziazione settoriale è influenzata da una moltitudine di fattori. I principali fattori includono il quadro istituzionale vigente, il grado di applicazione nei mercati delle normative nazionali e internazionali e il fatto che ogni settore produttivo è definito da tecnologie e caratteristiche di mercato distinte.
SAM-BASED COMPUTABLE GENERAL EQUILIBRIUM MODELS: THEORY AND EMPIRICAL APPLICATIONS / Almonti, L.. - (2025 Mar 20).
SAM-BASED COMPUTABLE GENERAL EQUILIBRIUM MODELS: THEORY AND EMPIRICAL APPLICATIONS
L. Almonti
2025-03-20
Abstract
This doctoral dissertation integrates national accounting with general equilibrium in order to provide theoretical and empirical insights into addressing the current global challenges of food security, environmental protection, and competition in policy modeling and evaluation. The three chapters collectively demonstrate the properties and potential of Computable General Equilibrium (CGE) models calibrated on Social Accounting Matrices (SAMs) to bridge the disaggregated structure of the economic system, as evidenced in the database, with a rigorous scientific characterization of the behavior of the operators. The SAM is the most suitable accounting scheme for presenting in matrix form the intricate interconnectedness of economic systems in a comprehensive, relevant, and internally consistent manner. In essence, the SAM captures the picture of the complete circular flow of income. General equilibrium provides the theoretical basis for CGE models, which formalize the core relationships between the operators through a system of simultaneous nonlinear equations that describe the interactions among markets, the formation of prices, and the determination of disposable incomes by institutional sector. This is achieved by deriving the system’s reference behavioral and technological parameters and quotas from the SAM. The first chapter, entitled “The disaggregated effects of policies for food security: the Pakistani case”, emphasizes the significance of food access and security in the assessment of economic policies, illustrating this with an example from Pakistan. To examine changes in GDP, income distribution, and food access, three policy scenarios are analyzed using a CGE model calibrated on a SAM for Pakistan. The SAM is complemented with data on calorie consumption, adapted from the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) data set, and categorizes households into sixteen groups based on geographic location and source of income. The calorie intake matrix provides a comprehensive account of food consumption by food type and household group. The model offers insights into potential shifts in consumption and nutritional processes resulting from the implementation of distinct policies. Of these, the policy of transfers plays the most significant role in simultaneously improving access to food and the spending capacity of low-income households. This outcome would suggest a need for a redesign of redistributive policies using the most consumed food quotas relative to other food commodities as the allocation method, with the aim of achieving equalizing impacts on real disposable incomes and directing resources towards a more substantial and nutrient-rich calorie intake. Ultimately, the objective is to equip policymakers with supplementary tools to assess the impact of economic policies on food access and security, moving beyond the conventional scope of resource allocation. The second chapter, entitled “Tools and policy actions to reconcile economic targets and emission abatement”, presents a CGE model based on a SAM that integrates the cost of CO2 abatement technology into the production cost function. The objective of this modeling approach is to reduce carbon emissions from fossil fuel plants while maintaining a sustained economic performance. Specifically, to examine the transmission mechanisms of economic policy impacts and shocks from the economic system to the environment, an environmental SAM is constructed, wherein CO2 flows in physical terms by industry are valued at the average price observed in the Emission Trading System (ETS) market. The SAM also incorporates the abatement capital flows associated with the absorption of four fossil sources, namely coal, crude oil, gas, and coking, in production processes. Secondly, the CGE model calibrated on the environmental SAM formalizes the principal relationships between the actors of the system and endogenizes the cost of CO2 emissions from fossil energy sources (the carbon tax) and the cost of abatement technology for these emissions. This chapter focuses on China, which is responsible for approximately one-third of global CO2 emissions and is the world’s largest energy producer. However, this approach may represent a best practice that can be extended to the analysis of environmental policies in other countries. Indeed, the results highlight the importance of adopting a multisectoral approach for the design and assessment of sectoral environmental policy measures. This is exemplified by the promotion of CO2 abatement technology in the electricity industry, which can be conceived as a substitute for carbon taxation. An increase in demand for abatement technology gives rise to interdependencies in production, thereby mitigating the adverse effects of a combined carbon tax on the economic system. When the costs associated with the abatement technology and carbon emissions are accompanied by the recycling of the carbon tax revenue, the system demonstrates a certain ability to overcome the traditional trade-off between economic and environmental objectives. The third chapter, entitled “Degree of monopoly and price formation in a multisectoral CGE model”, draws upon the ongoing discourse surrounding competition in the National Recovery and Resilience Plan (NRRP). From the perspective of the impact analysis of these reforms, there is a need to reconcile the theoretical foundations of the partial equilibrium approach to imperfect competition with the multisectoral general equilibrium approach, which is capable of elucidating the aggregate and disaggregated response of the economic system to a departure from the hypothesis of perfect competition. Therefore, a theoretical and methodological advancement is proposed in a CGE model calibrated on a SAM for Italy. A mark-up on the price of goods and services is introduced to make the commodity market behaviors outlined by the model more consistent with the empirical evidence on imperfectly competitive markets. Three policy scenarios are considered: one representing perfect competition, one representing a low degree of monopoly, and another representing a high degree of monopoly. This allows for an evaluation of the CGE model’s ability to accurately capture price formation in commodity markets characterized by differentiated degrees of monopoly, the allocation of resources across institutional sectors, and offer a more detailed picture of the transmission channels of economic policy. The simulation exercises illustrate that there is a notable sectoral differentiation that is not univocal when considering a high degree of monopoly with respect to the assumption of perfect competition. This pronounced sectoral differentiation is influenced by a multitude of factors. These factors include the institutional framework in place, the extent to which previous international and national regulations have been integrated into the market under consideration, and the fact that each production sector is defined by distinct technologies and market characteristics.File | Dimensione | Formato | |
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Descrizione: SAM-BASED COMPUTABLE GENERAL EQUILIBRIUM MODELS: THEORY AND EMPIRICAL APPLICATIONS
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