The introduction of this research offers a general overview of racism, considered a still pervasive phenomenon in contemporary societies, and of the logical mechanism that supports it: in the face of an identity that is thought to be pure and absolute, every form of otherness receives, by nature, the value of a difference transformed into inequality. Taking note of these dynamics, the investigation intends to deepen their conceptual core from an innovative historical-philosophical perspective: to explore the origins of the comparison with otherness, assuming the ancient Greek world as the identity pole, and the barbaros and the xenos as the difference pole. Far from comparing distant worlds, such as the Ancient and the Contemporary, this argumentative move aims to understand if and how classical reflection can offer models useful for orienting in the complexity of the present. Along with this general aim, the research also pursues a more specific one: to reconstruct the position of philosophers, from Thales to Aristotle, on the barbarian and on the foreigner. Indeed, from an analysis of their texts, the importance of valuing their judgment emerges because it develops in a critical contrast with their collective imaginary of reference, which is strongly ideologized. The first chapter, Greek perspectives on the barbarian worlds. From the Pre-Socratics to Aristotle, passing through the Sophists, Hippocrates and Plato, opens with the investigation of those Pre-Socratics, such as Thales and the Pythagoreans, which reveals the complex interweaving between Eastern wisdom and the birth of Greek philosophy; it continues with Xenophanes, who is the first philosopher to use the ethnographic method with important theoretical implications, and with Heraclitus, who is the first to use the adjective barbaros in prose, in a descriptive and evaluative sense. The research then focuses on the movement of Sophistry, which develops simultaneously with the Persian Wars, or rather with that historical event that marks the ideological metamorphosis of the “barbaric” into “barbarity”. Within this diversified panorama, Gorgias stands out, and, with rhetorical skill, remodels the category of barbaros, while moving inside the traditional Greek taxonomic; instead, Hippias and Antiphon, reflecting on the dialectic “physis-nomos”, insert the “Greek-barbarian” dichotomy into innovative arguments of a humanitarian and cosmopolitan nature. Finally, the Dissoi Logoi, an anonymous pamphlet with a dilemmatic layout, figures out arguments influenced by Herodotus ethnographic, but meant in a philosophical sense. The survey then focuses on Hippocrates’s Airs Waters Places, a treatise which, while recognizing a “human nature” common to all anthropoi, reflects on the influence of climates, natural and cultural, on the bodies and souls of peoples. Destined to become a topos, this argument must not be taken on uncritically, because it does not mean a rigid “environmental determinism” but establishes a variable synergy between physis and nomos. The chapter closes with Plato and Aristotle. Despite some theoretical divergences, their judgment about the barbarians has a similar conceptual approach: regardless of ideologies, their position is structured around multiple explanatory scenarios – “anthropological”, “ethical”, “political” and “cultural” for Plato, “biological”, “geographical”, “ethical” and “political” for Aristotle – aimed at combining, with theoretical coherence, the universality of human nature with the differences between the Greeks and the barbarians. In the second chapter, Relations between foreigners in the Greek world. Plato’s contribution, the research moves within Hellas, to focus on the figure of xenos. However, among philosophers, only Plato tackles, with argumentative breadth, the questions relating to the foreigner, whether passing through or residing. Starting from the distinction between “practices of hospitality” and “paths of welcome”, the research intends to reconstruct the multiple conceptual trajectories in which the Platonic judgment unfolds. The aim is not only to understand what are the practical strategies devised by the Philosopher to regulate contacts with foreigners, but also to grasp their theoretical foundations, to understand the roles and the functions that Plato attributes to xenos, especially in political contexts. Hospitality practices and welcome paths beyond philosophy. The drama of the Danaids, the case of Lysias and the story of Neera: this is the title of the third and final chapter, in which the investigation examines literary sources pertaining to tragedy and rhetoric but analysing them through philosophical interpretative tools. That “trespassing” is aimed at enriching and problematizing some theoretical issues that have already emerged in the previous chapters. Indeed, Aeschylus’ Suppliants represent an essential document for reflecting on the “aporetic logic” of harmonizing the divine law of hospitality with the political equilibrium of the human world. Furthermore, the Aeschylean tragedy centres on the collective character of the Danaids who, due to their prismatic identity, both foreign and barbaric, is configured as unique in the ancient literary panorama. Lysias’ orations, on the other hand, constitute a precious testimony for reconstructing the values followed by the foreigners residing in Athens. Indeed, in the portraits offered by the logographer, the metics are distinguished by their profound civic spirit, which leads them to defend their fellow citizens and their own “second polis”, de facto obtaining that political subjectivity which, de jure, is denied to them. Similarly, in Plato’s Republic, Cephalus and Polemarcus, respectively father and brother of Lysias, are presented, against the communis opinio, as the paradigm of the “good art of money making”. Finally, Demosthenes’ oration, Against Neera, opens an interesting cross-section on the condition of women in classical Athens. Specifically, the investigation intends to demonstrate that Neera’s “dual marginality”, because she is a woman and a foreigner, turns out to be a sort of “social engine”, which allows her to independently find alternative paths of emancipation, up to obtaining comfort and positions unknown to the Athenians themselves. The concluding appendix, The Athenian Civic Myth of Autochthony. Some critical reflections, is proposed to examine the ideal of autochthony, or rather of the myth relating to the origin of the Athenian lineage, which occurs several times throughout the entire research. The aim is to show that some disparities of the Athenian democracy find in autochthony a symbolic matrix with a high performative value, which rests on two antithetical but complementary logics: on the one hand, it pushes the Athenians to flaunt their own nobility of spirit, welcoming those who seek shelter in Athens, celebrated as a hospitable polis par excellence; on the other, it forces them to preserve the identity purity of their genos, which would be undermined by attributing citizenship also to subjects coming from elsewhere, because they bear a dangerous and unavoidable otherness.
La parte introduttiva di questa ricerca offre un inquadramento generale del razzismo, considerato un fenomeno ancora pervasivo nelle società contemporanee, e del meccanismo logico che lo sorregge: a fronte di una identità che si pensa pura e assoluta, ogni forma di alterità riceve, per natura, il valore di una differenza trasformata in diseguaglianza. Preso atto di tali dinamiche, l’indagine intende approfondirne il nucleo concettuale da una inedita prospettiva storico-filosofica: esplorare le origini del confronto con l’alterità, assumendo come baricentro identitario il mondo greco antico e come figure dell’estraneo il barbaros e lo xenos. Lungi dal comparare mondi irriducibilmente distanti, quali l’Antico e il Contemporaneo, questa mossa argomentativa risponde all’esigenza di capire se e come la riflessione classica possa offrire modelli ermeneutici utili per orientarsi nella complessità del presente. Accanto a questa finalità più ampia, l’indagine persegue anche uno scopo più specifico: ricostruire la posizione dei filosofi, da Talete ad Aristotele, nei riguardi del barbaro e dello straniero. Da una attenta analisi delle fonti, infatti, si riscontra l’importanza di valorizzare il giudizio di tali pensatori perché si sviluppa secondo una dinamica di raffronto, che talvolta si fa di contrasto, rispetto al loro immaginario collettivo di riferimento, sempre più colonizzato da una pervicace ideologia. Il primo capitolo, Prospettive greche sui mondi barbari. Dalla riflessione dei Presocratici a quella di Aristotele, passando per i Sofisti, Ippocrate e Platone, si apre con quei pensatori presocratici, come Talete e la Scuola pitagorica, da cui trapela l’articolato intreccio tra la sapienza orientale e la nascita della filosofia greca; prosegue con Senofane, che è il primo filosofo ad impiegare il metodo etnografico con importanti risvolti teorici, e con Eraclito, che è il primo ad utilizzare in prosa l’aggettivo barbaros, in una accezione descrittiva e valutativa. La ricerca, poi, si focalizza sul movimento della Sofistica, che si sviluppa in contemporanea alle Guerre Persiane, ovvero a quell’evento storico che segna la metamorfosi ideologica del “barbaro” in “barbarie”. All’interno di questo panorama diversificato, spicca Gorgia, che, con abilità retorica, rimodula il significato della categoria del barbaros, pur muovendosi tra le tassonomie greche tradizionali; Ippia e Antifone, invece, riflettendo intorno al nesso dialettico tra physis e nomos, ricollocano la dicotomia Greci-barbari in argomentazioni innovative di carattere umanitarista e cosmopolitico. I Dissoi Logoi, infine, opuscolo anonimo dall’impianto dilemmatico, si snodano intorno ad alcune tesi nella cui movenza concettuale si trovano influssi etnografici erodotei ripensati in chiave filosofica. L’elaborato, dunque, curva su Ippocrate, in particolare sul trattato Arie Acque Luoghi che, pur riconoscendo una “natura umana” comune a tutti gli anthropoi, riflette intorno all’influenza dei climi, naturali e culturali, sui corpi e sui temperamenti dei popoli. Destinato a diventare un topos, tale argomento non merita di essere assunto in modo acritico, perché non si risolve in un rigido “determinismo ambientale”, ma predilige una sinergia variabile tra la physis e il nomos. Il capitolo si chiude con Platone e Aristotele. A fronte di alcune divergenze tra i loro sistemi di sapere, il giudizio dei due pensatori intorno ai barbari presenta un impianto concettuale analogo: prescindendo dalle ideologie dominanti nell’orizzonte culturale greco, la posizione di entrambi si snoda intorno a molteplici scenari esplicativi – “antropologico”, “etico”, “politico” e “culturale” per Platone, “biologico”, “geografico”, “etico” e “politico” per Aristotele –, volti a coniugare, con coerenza teorica, l’universalità della natura umana con le differenze che intercorrono tra i Greci e i barbari. Nel secondo capitolo, Relazioni tra stranieri nel mondo greco. Il contributo di Platone, l’asse del ragionamento si sposta all’interno dell’Ellade, per focalizzarsi sulla figura della xenos. Tra i filosofi, tuttavia, solo Platone affronta con ampiezza argomentativa le questioni relative allo straniero, sia esso di passaggio o residente. Pertanto, a partire dalla distinzione tra “pratiche di ospitalità” e “percorsi di accoglienza”, la ricerca intende ricostruire i diversi percorsi tematici in cui si compone il giudizio platonico. Lo scopo ultimo non è solo capire quali sono le strategie pratiche ideate dal Filosofo per disciplinare i contatti con gli stranieri, ma anche ragionare intorno ai fondamenti teorici che le motivano, per comprendere i ruoli e le funzioni che Platone attribuisce allo xenos, soprattutto nei contesti politici. Le pratiche di ospitalità e i percorsi di accoglienza oltre la filosofia. Il dramma delle Danaidi, il caso di Lisia e la vicenda di Neera: è questo il titolo del terzo ed ultimo capitolo, in cui l’indagine pone al centro alcune fonti letterarie afferenti all’ambito della tragedia e della retorica, ma leggendole attraverso strumenti interpretativi filosofici. Tali “sconfinamenti” sono finalizzati ad arricchire e problematizzare alcune questioni teoriche già emerse nei capitoli precedenti. Le Supplici di Eschilo, infatti, rappresentano un documento imprescindibile per riflettere intorno alle aporie implicate nell’imperativo di armonizzare la legge divina dell’ospitalità con gli equilibri politici del mondo umano. La tragedia eschilea, inoltre, è incentrata sul personaggio collettivo delle Danaidi che, per la propria identità prismatica, straniera e barbara, si configura come unicum nel panorama letterario antico. Le orazioni di Lisia, invece, costituiscono una preziosa testimonianza per ricostruire dall’interno l’universo valoriale degli stranieri residenti ad Atene. Nei ritratti offerti dal logografo, infatti, i meteci si distinguono per il loro profondo civismo, che li porta ad agire in difesa dei propri concittadini e della propria “seconda polis” ricavandosi de facto quella soggettività politica che de jure è loro negata. Analogamente, nella Repubblica di Platone, Cefalo e Polemarco, rispettivamente padre e fratello di Lisia, sono presentati, contro la communis opinio, come il paradigma della “buona crematistica”. L’orazione di Demostene, Contro Neera, infine, apre un interessante spaccato sulla condizione femminile nell’Atene classica. Nello specifico, la ricerca intende dimostrare che la “duplice marginalità” di Neera, perché donna e straniera, si rivela una sorta di “motore sociale”, che le consente di individuare, in autonomia, traiettorie alternative di emancipazione, tanto da guadagnarsi agi e posizioni sconosciuti alle stesse Ateniesi. L’appendice conclusiva, Il mito civico ateniese dell’autoctonia. Alcune riflessioni critiche, esamina alcuni lineamenti costitutivi dell’ideale dell’autoctonia, ovvero della narrazione mitica relativa all’origine della stirpe ateniese, con cui si confrontano anche molti pensatori presi in esame nel corso della ricerca. Il fine di tale approfondimento è mostrare che le disparità endemiche all’assetto democratico ateniese trovano nel discorso autoctono una matrice simbolica dall’alto valore performativo, la quale poggia su due logiche antitetiche ma complementari: da un lato, spinge gli Ateniesi ad ostentare la propria nobiltà d’animo, accordando accoglienza a quanti cercano riparo ad Atene, celebrata come polis ospitale per eccellenza; dall’altro, li costringe a preservare la purezza identitaria del proprio genos, che sarebbe minata dall’attribuire la cittadinanza anche a soggetti provenienti da altrove, perché portatori di una pericolosa e inaggirabile alterità.
Alle origini del confronto con l'alterità. Barbaroi e xenoi nel pensiero greco antico. Una indagine storico filosofica.
Piangerelli, Federica
2023-01-01
Abstract
The introduction of this research offers a general overview of racism, considered a still pervasive phenomenon in contemporary societies, and of the logical mechanism that supports it: in the face of an identity that is thought to be pure and absolute, every form of otherness receives, by nature, the value of a difference transformed into inequality. Taking note of these dynamics, the investigation intends to deepen their conceptual core from an innovative historical-philosophical perspective: to explore the origins of the comparison with otherness, assuming the ancient Greek world as the identity pole, and the barbaros and the xenos as the difference pole. Far from comparing distant worlds, such as the Ancient and the Contemporary, this argumentative move aims to understand if and how classical reflection can offer models useful for orienting in the complexity of the present. Along with this general aim, the research also pursues a more specific one: to reconstruct the position of philosophers, from Thales to Aristotle, on the barbarian and on the foreigner. Indeed, from an analysis of their texts, the importance of valuing their judgment emerges because it develops in a critical contrast with their collective imaginary of reference, which is strongly ideologized. The first chapter, Greek perspectives on the barbarian worlds. From the Pre-Socratics to Aristotle, passing through the Sophists, Hippocrates and Plato, opens with the investigation of those Pre-Socratics, such as Thales and the Pythagoreans, which reveals the complex interweaving between Eastern wisdom and the birth of Greek philosophy; it continues with Xenophanes, who is the first philosopher to use the ethnographic method with important theoretical implications, and with Heraclitus, who is the first to use the adjective barbaros in prose, in a descriptive and evaluative sense. The research then focuses on the movement of Sophistry, which develops simultaneously with the Persian Wars, or rather with that historical event that marks the ideological metamorphosis of the “barbaric” into “barbarity”. Within this diversified panorama, Gorgias stands out, and, with rhetorical skill, remodels the category of barbaros, while moving inside the traditional Greek taxonomic; instead, Hippias and Antiphon, reflecting on the dialectic “physis-nomos”, insert the “Greek-barbarian” dichotomy into innovative arguments of a humanitarian and cosmopolitan nature. Finally, the Dissoi Logoi, an anonymous pamphlet with a dilemmatic layout, figures out arguments influenced by Herodotus ethnographic, but meant in a philosophical sense. The survey then focuses on Hippocrates’s Airs Waters Places, a treatise which, while recognizing a “human nature” common to all anthropoi, reflects on the influence of climates, natural and cultural, on the bodies and souls of peoples. Destined to become a topos, this argument must not be taken on uncritically, because it does not mean a rigid “environmental determinism” but establishes a variable synergy between physis and nomos. The chapter closes with Plato and Aristotle. Despite some theoretical divergences, their judgment about the barbarians has a similar conceptual approach: regardless of ideologies, their position is structured around multiple explanatory scenarios – “anthropological”, “ethical”, “political” and “cultural” for Plato, “biological”, “geographical”, “ethical” and “political” for Aristotle – aimed at combining, with theoretical coherence, the universality of human nature with the differences between the Greeks and the barbarians. In the second chapter, Relations between foreigners in the Greek world. Plato’s contribution, the research moves within Hellas, to focus on the figure of xenos. However, among philosophers, only Plato tackles, with argumentative breadth, the questions relating to the foreigner, whether passing through or residing. Starting from the distinction between “practices of hospitality” and “paths of welcome”, the research intends to reconstruct the multiple conceptual trajectories in which the Platonic judgment unfolds. The aim is not only to understand what are the practical strategies devised by the Philosopher to regulate contacts with foreigners, but also to grasp their theoretical foundations, to understand the roles and the functions that Plato attributes to xenos, especially in political contexts. Hospitality practices and welcome paths beyond philosophy. The drama of the Danaids, the case of Lysias and the story of Neera: this is the title of the third and final chapter, in which the investigation examines literary sources pertaining to tragedy and rhetoric but analysing them through philosophical interpretative tools. That “trespassing” is aimed at enriching and problematizing some theoretical issues that have already emerged in the previous chapters. Indeed, Aeschylus’ Suppliants represent an essential document for reflecting on the “aporetic logic” of harmonizing the divine law of hospitality with the political equilibrium of the human world. Furthermore, the Aeschylean tragedy centres on the collective character of the Danaids who, due to their prismatic identity, both foreign and barbaric, is configured as unique in the ancient literary panorama. Lysias’ orations, on the other hand, constitute a precious testimony for reconstructing the values followed by the foreigners residing in Athens. Indeed, in the portraits offered by the logographer, the metics are distinguished by their profound civic spirit, which leads them to defend their fellow citizens and their own “second polis”, de facto obtaining that political subjectivity which, de jure, is denied to them. Similarly, in Plato’s Republic, Cephalus and Polemarcus, respectively father and brother of Lysias, are presented, against the communis opinio, as the paradigm of the “good art of money making”. Finally, Demosthenes’ oration, Against Neera, opens an interesting cross-section on the condition of women in classical Athens. Specifically, the investigation intends to demonstrate that Neera’s “dual marginality”, because she is a woman and a foreigner, turns out to be a sort of “social engine”, which allows her to independently find alternative paths of emancipation, up to obtaining comfort and positions unknown to the Athenians themselves. The concluding appendix, The Athenian Civic Myth of Autochthony. Some critical reflections, is proposed to examine the ideal of autochthony, or rather of the myth relating to the origin of the Athenian lineage, which occurs several times throughout the entire research. The aim is to show that some disparities of the Athenian democracy find in autochthony a symbolic matrix with a high performative value, which rests on two antithetical but complementary logics: on the one hand, it pushes the Athenians to flaunt their own nobility of spirit, welcoming those who seek shelter in Athens, celebrated as a hospitable polis par excellence; on the other, it forces them to preserve the identity purity of their genos, which would be undermined by attributing citizenship also to subjects coming from elsewhere, because they bear a dangerous and unavoidable otherness.File | Dimensione | Formato | |
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Descrizione: Alle origini del confronto con l'alterità. Barbaroi e xenoi nel pensiero greco antico. Una indagine storico filosofica
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